Utilitarianism

Jeremy Bentham’ Utilitarianism

His major work is ‘The principles of morals and legislation’, 1789, which is divided into three sections:

1. Motivation of human beings and the concept of good and bad – “Nature has placed mankind under the goverence of two sovereign masters, pain and pleasure. It is for them alone to point out what we shall do, as well as to determine what we shall do.”

2. Principle of Utility – The greatest good for the greatest number. The most useful course of action if trying to maximise pleasure and minimize pain. In a given situation, one must examine the consequential pain/pleasure resultant for all concerned.

3. Hedonic Calculus – The Hedonic Calculus weighs up the pain and pleasure generated by the available moral actions to find the best option. It considers several factors:
   1. Intensity
   2. Duration
   3. Certainty or uncertainty
   4. Nearness or remoteness
   5. Consequences
   6. Purity
   7. Extent

If the probable pain of an action out weighs its pleasure then Bentham says that it is morally wrong.

Weaknesses of Bentham’s utilitarianism

• If 10 rapists were to rape the same woman, then using the Hedonic Calculus, their pleasure would outweigh the woman’s pain. Therefore, it would become justifiable. This is called the Swine Ethic.
• Measure e. – Consequences is not measurable because we do not know how far the consequences will reach. When do we stop?
• There is no protection for the minorities.

John Stuart Mill’s Utilitarianism

Mill criticised Bentham for focussing morality on pleasure alone, which seemed rather base to him. Thus, he decided to introduce a theory of utility for the common person , which replaced pleasure for ‘happiness’ (“the greatest happiness for the greatest number”) and moved away from mere quantity to the quality of happiness as well. Although he believed that the wellbeing of the individual was of primary concern, happiness is best achieved when it is subject to the rules that protect the common good.

Mill defined happiness as something which is cultural and spiritual rather than just physical and distinguished between lower pleasures and higher pleasures. He famously wrote “It is better to be a human being satisfied than a pig satisfied, better to be Socrates dissatisfied than a fool satisfied.”

Weaknesses of Mill’s utilitarianism

• Sidgewick – “In practice it is hard to distinguish between higher and lower pleasures.” This is due to the subjectivity of “pleasure”

• WD Ross – “Single-factor” moral theories don’t work because life is too complex. We have “prima facie” duties. I.e. who would I save – my son or a man with the cure to AIDS? – My son because my prima facie duty is to him.

• RM Hare – you would still have to tell the truth to a mad axe man. It would still be possible to justify slavery – minority rights not protected.

Comparing Bentham and Mill

Act Utilitarianism

Act utilitarianism uses the outcome of an action to asses whether it is right or wrong. Thus, there are no necessary moral rules except one, that we should always seek the greatest happiness for the greatest number in all situations.

Act utilitarianism is linked to Bentham’s form of utilitarianism.

Weakness of Act utilitarianism

• It is difficult to predict the consequences
• There is potential to justify any act
• Difficulty in defining pleasure
• There is no defence for the minorities
• It is impractical to say that we should calculate the morality of each choice

Summary

• Teleological – it is aiming towards a maximisation of pleasure for the majority. It has an end aim or goal.

• Relative – no notion of absolute right/wrong, no external source of truth. Nothing in itself is right or wrong.

• Consequential – the consequences of an act alone determine its rightness/wrongness.

Rule Utilitarianism

Rule utilitarianists believe that rules should be formed using utilitarian principles for the benefit of society. Strong utilitarians believe that these derived rules should never be disobeyed. However, weak utilitarians say that although there should be generally accepted rules or guidelines, they should not always be adhered to indefinitely.

Rule utilitarianism is commonly linked with Mill.

Weakness of rule utilitarianism

• It is difficult to predict the consequences
• Difficulty in defining what constitutes happiness
• There is no defence for the minorities

Summary

• Deontological – rules take priority.

• Relative – what is right/wrong is established as the maximisation of pleasure for the particular community/society which it operates within.

• Consequential – the overall consequences determine its rightness/wrongness.

Strengths of Utilitarianism

• Supports the notion that human wellbeing is generally good
• Supports Jesus’ call to treat others as you would have them treat you
• Consequences affect life, not motives
• Encourages democracy

Weaknesses of Utilitarianism

• Difficult to predict consequences
• The theory disregards motivation and goodwill
• Says that the majority is always right (e.g. Nazis in WWII)
• Does not protect the minorities

The single criterion for morality is far too simplistic. Morality cannot rely on pleasure and happiness alone – life is too complex.